Margalla Papers is a biannual publication of the Institute for Strategic Studies, Research and Analysis, National Defence University, Islamabad. It is a distinctive publication focusing on contemporary issues in world politics, globalisation, foreign policy, strategic and economic relations, regional organisations, peacekeeping, international law, and global commons. This unique focus has made it popular among students, researchers, academicians, policymakers, and intelligentsia. The journal's credibility is further enhanced by its status as a double (home and abroad) peer-reviewed journal, following international publishing standards. It has been recognised and indexed by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan in its Journal Recognition System (HJRS) since 1997. Publishing Schedule Margalla Papers announces Call for Papers twice yearly (January and July) and publishes two issues and one volume in a calendar year. However, special issues are announced separately if scheduled. Contact National Defence University Sector E-9/3, Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory 44000 Principal Contact Editor Margalla Papers National Defence University, Islamabad, Pakistan Phone+92 (51) 9260651-2 editormargallapapers@ndu.edu.pk Support Contact Webmaster Phone+92 (51) 9260651-2 webmaster@ndu.edu.pk Privacy Statement The names and email addresses entered in this journal site will be used exclusively for the stated purposes of this journal. They will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party. Publication/ Processing Fee Margalla Papers does not charge a fee for submitting, processing, and publishing research papers, so there is no fee waiver policy. Subscription Margalla Papers is an open-access journal everyone can read, download, and cite. All issues of Margalla Papers are freely available online, but print editions (hard copy) are only available to paid subscribers (limited in number). Subscription rates are: Inland: PKR1500/- for a single issue (excluding postal charges) Overseas: US$30 for a single issue (excluding postal charges) If you have any questions about the subscription or want to order the printed copy, please contact editormargallapapers@ndu.edu.pk. Funding Disclosure Policy Authors submitting to Margalla Papers must include a dedicated 'Funding' section in their manuscript, positioned after the acknowledgments and before the references. This section ensures transparency regarding any financial support for the research, in alignment with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) guidelines. If no funding was received, authors should state: "This research received no external funding." If funding exists (e.g., grants, sponsorships, or subsidies), authors must provide full details, including the funder name, grant number (if applicable), and the role of the funder in the study (e.g., design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing). In accordance with COPE's Code of Conduct for Journal Editors, readers should be informed about who has funded the research or other scholarly work and whether the funders had any role in the research and its publication and, if so, what this was. Failure to disclose funding information may result in rejection of the manuscript. This policy applies to all submissions effective from Vol. 29 No. 1 (2025) and supports our commitment to ethical publishing practices.
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NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY OF PAKISTAN: IN SEARCH OF ADAPTATION, CLIMATE RESILIENCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Pakistan is facing critical challenges due to climate change. This paper critically examines Pakistan's National Climate Change Policy in the context of a skewed adaptation-mitigation balance. Despite efforts such as the Billion Tree Tsunami and adherence to international treaties reflecting the sense of mitigation, there are serious loopholes in the adaptation efforts. This research, based on an assessment of the governance issues, political instability, and shortage of funds, analyses the ineffectiveness of policy implementation and excessive reliance on foreign climate finance. The argument in this case is that Pakistan's unilateral emphasis on mitigation is dangerous to disaster resilience and economic stability, making the country susceptible to repeated cycles of environmental crises.
Copyright (c) 2026 Summar Iqbal Babar; Wajeeha Ashfaq https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
INDIA’S SUBMARINE FORCE MODERNIZATION AND ITS ROLE IN STRATEGIC DETERRENCE
The emergence of competition among 21st-century maritime powers has transformed the underwater region into an important region of deterrence and strategic influence. In the case of India, the modernisation of its submarine forces is not only related to enhancing the naval power but also the construction of a credible deterrent like diesel-electric attack submarines (SSKs) and the enhancement of the second-strike capabilities, which are critical to national security. This research paper examines the development of the submarine modernisation force of India, taking the Arihant-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), the conventional classes of Kalvari and project 75I, and analyses the limitations in its operation, keeping in perspective the competition in the region by China and Pakistan[i]. It examines how this program can support India's deterrence strategy, with consideration of survivability, strategic stability, and power politics in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). The research argues through qualitative methods, such as defence white papers, doctrinal study and recent strategic reports, that India is strengthening its maritime deterrence capability through the induction of Scorpene-class conventional attack submarines and Arihant-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines. While Indian submarine modernisation has contributed to a more effective maritime deterrent strategy, issues related to persistent delays in indigenous propulsion technology and lack of operational redundancy during strategic maritime deployments have hindered this effort. Policies are recommended to increase AIP, which has been proven in the sea, to focus on the sustainability of SSBNs and patrolling, enhance industrial propulsions, and create regional confidence-building strategies to minimise crisis instability. The research paper ends with one argument that a strong and locally made submarine power is important in order to maintain India's strategic autonomy and significantly prevent regional aggression.
Copyright (c) 2026 Warda Tehreem https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
INDIAN MILITARY THEATRE COMMANDS: IMPLICATIONS FOR DETERRENCE STABILITY IN SOUTH ASIA
The establishment of integrated military theatre commands in India is a significant restructuring of the country’s defence forces, with tangible consequences for Pakistan’s security. The reform will bring the integration of the Army, Navy and Air Force into Joint Command Forces that can operate fast and on multiple domains, on the basis of previous ideas like the Cold Start doctrine and the Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs). The developments are potentially destabilising because they compress the traditional response time, reduce the time limit for crisis decision-making and enhance the risk of limited military response under the nuclear overhang scenario for India. By enabling faster and more coordinated offensive options, India’s Theaterisation deepens Pakistan’s security dilemma and raises concerns about rapid, limited strikes that could exploit reduced warning time. The paper discusses the implications of Indian theatre commands for deterrence stability in South Asia. It argues that Pakistan will likely respond with enhanced inter-service integration, better intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) and continued evolution of its Full Spectrum Deterrence posture, to deny India the space for limited war. The methodological approach used in the study is qualitative analysis, which is based on official statements, institutional reforms, public statements, and open-source strategic assessments. The analysis finds that while India is moving toward greater operational efficacy and jointness, Theaterisation may also raise crisis instability, quicken escalation risk, and further complicate the strategic stability in South Asia.
Copyright (c) 2026 Syed Ali Abbas https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
CORE-PERIPHERY DYNAMICS AND GEOPOLITICAL ALIGNMENTS: A WORLD-SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON PAKISTAN-KENYA AND INDIA-KENYA RELATIONS
This study analyses the structural asymmetry in Pakistan and India’s bilateral relations with Kenya using World-Systems Theory (WST) and the framework of African Agency. Primarily, it investigates: How do the divergent economic trajectories of India and Pakistan shape their asymmetric relations with Kenya? And how Kenya exercises its agency to navigate South Asian asymmetric strategies to its advantage. It argues that India’s dominance is rooted in its status as an ascending semi-periphery, whereas Pakistan’s engagement remains constrained by limited capital accumulation and domestic economic volatility. Consequently, India provides high-value technological transfers and strategic depth, while Pakistan remains anchored in a traditional, commodity-based trade model. Rejecting the narrative of Africa as a passive periphery, this research positions Kenya as a dynamic regional hub that strategically leverages its supremacy to negotiate with competing South Asian powers. Through a qualitative comparative analysis of trade data and diplomatic records, the study covers the meaningful developments from 1978 to 2025. The findings reveal that India’s influence is sustained by institutional depth, vast diaspora networks, and digital infrastructure. Conversely, while Pakistan’s "Engage Africa" policy shows growth, it lacks sustained institutionalisation. The study concludes that for Pakistan to remain a viable partner, it must pivot from basic commodity exchange toward robust capacity building, diaspora engagement, and a deeper recognition of Kenya’s strategic agency.
Copyright (c) 2026 Asma Rashid https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
THE ‘EVERYWHERE BATTLEFIELD’: IMPLICATIONS FOR AIR WARFARE IN THE ERA OF MULTI-DOMAIN OPERATIONS AND PAKISTAN’S AERIAL DEFENCE POSTURE
The evolving character of war due to technological advancement and integration of the fields has led to the notion of the everywhere battlefield. This paper is a review of how Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) are transforming the way strategic and operational thinking is being addressed by bringing together land, air, naval, cyber, and space capabilities into a unified framework. The main aim of the study is to examine the consequences of MDO to Pakistan, and more specifically Pakistan Air Force leading role in the development of network-centric and cross-domain capabilities. The paper uses the Network-Centric Warfare theory to place the trajectory of Pakistan in the context of global trends, such as the US doctrine of Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2), the Chinese doctrine of Integrated Joint Operations, and lessons of the war between Russia and Ukraine. Methodologically, the study adopts a qualitative approach, combining semi-structured expert interviews with systematic analysis of secondary sources. The study’s findings reveal that the effective integration of MDOs during May 2025 war with India provided Pakistan with a concrete operational advantage, highlighting their role in strengthening credible deterrence. Furthermore, the paper highlights challenges such as hybrid threats, and resource limitations, and wraps up with policy suggestions on how Pakistan can sustain current momentum on tri-service synergy, technological innovation, and resilience in operations in the era of multi-domain warfare.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ezba Walayat Khan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
WEAPONIZING INFORMATION: A STUDY OF DISINFORMATION AND INFORMATION WARFARE BETWEEN INDIA AND PAKISTAN
The rivalry between India and Pakistan, based on constant tensions over the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir, has shifted from conventional to network-centric warfare, especially information warfare. The modern era is characterised by Fifth-Generation Warfare (5GW), which focuses on the use of non-kinetic instruments, including disinformation, psychological operations, propaganda, and perception management, to influence political will, societal morale, and decision-making without military action. This paper discusses how information warfare is practised as statecraft in South Asia, with a specific focus on how it has shaped the realities, identities, and interests of two nuclear-armed adversaries. Drawing on Social Constructivism, the paper examines how these narratives are constructed and disseminated through algorithmic digital spaces, particularly during the Pulwama crisis of 2019 and the May 2025 conflict. This study used qualitative and analytical methodology to analyse the secondary data sources. Moreover, the case study research design is used to analyse two major cases of information warfare between India and Pakistan. Finally, it provides policy recommendations for how Pakistan should address disinformation, strengthen its digital infrastructure, and enhance its international perceptions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Gull-e- Areeba ; Ahmed Waqas Waheed https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
ALGORITHMIC HYBRID WARFARE: AI-DRIVEN DISINFORMATION IN THE RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR
In the contemporary era, the weaponisation of digital platforms for perception and narrative control is becoming a crucial element in the emerging fifth-generation warfare. This paper examines the AI-driven disinformation campaigns during the 2022 Russia-Ukraine war to analyse the impact of modern technologies on armed conflicts. Through a qualitative comparative case study research design, this paper comparatively analyses the asymmetry and reach of Russia and Ukraine’s AI-based information operations. The central focus of the research is to understand the extensive use of AI by Russia and Ukraine and its effectiveness in disseminating false narratives and shaping global perception. The research revealed that Russian information operations leveraged advanced technology and possess a broader international reach, whereas the Western-supported Ukrainian countermeasures are more defensive and domestic in nature. The findings suggest that AI is reinventing contemporary warfare while emphasising the decisive role of narrative framing in shaping future conflict outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Muhammad Noman; Mahnoor Azhar, Zeeshan Fida https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
FROM TRANSITION TO RUPTURE: THE FATE OF THE RULES-BASED WORLD ORDER AND PAKISTAN’S STRATEGIC RECKONING
The international system is no longer undergoing a gradual transition but rather a systemic rupture, characterised by shifts in the distribution of power, erosion of institutional legitimacy, and fragmentation of normative consensus. Drawing on realist, liberal, and constructivist perspectives, the article examines the structural and normative drivers undermining the post-1945 international order, including great power rivalry, institutional paralysis, selective rule compliance, and technological and geo-economic coercion. Using qualitative analysis of recent geopolitical developments and regional conflicts, the study demonstrates that the emerging global environment is characterised by fragmentation, transactionalism, and power-centric behaviour rather than shared rules. It further assesses the strategic implications of this rupture for middle and developing powers, with particular emphasis on Pakistan’s diplomatic space, security calculus, and strategic choices in an increasingly polarised international system.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mian Nadir Sulaiman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
DETERRENCE IN TRANSITION: FROM NUCLEAR SHADOWS TO TECHNO-DETERRENCE ACROSS LAND AND SEA
This paper examines the evolving dynamics of cross-domain deterrence between Pakistan and India, focusing on how nuclear, conventional, and maritime capabilities intersect to shape South Asia’s security environment. Between 2014 and 2025, both countries have sought to project strength not only through nuclear signalling but also through conventional force modernisation and an increased emphasis on naval power in the Indian Ocean. These overlapping domains of deterrence influence how each side perceives threats, makes decisions, and responds during moments of tension. The Pahalgam episode, marked by sharpened rhetoric and heightened alert statuses, serves as a revealing case of how crises in South Asia can quickly spill across multiple domains, creating uncertainty and heightening the risk of miscalculation. The growing prominence of naval power, in particular, highlights how sea-based deterrence and maritime competition are adding new layers to the traditional nuclear equation between Pakistan and India. By drawing attention to the human and political dimensions of deterrence, the paper argues that South Asian stability cannot be understood solely in terms of nuclear balances. Instead, it requires recognising how military postures, leadership choices, and perceptions across different domains collectively shape crisis outcomes and long-term defence policies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Rubina Waseem; Malik Abdul Wasay , Ansar Jamil https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
MODI GOVERNMENT’S HYBRID STRATEGIC POSTURE: IMPLICATIONS FOR NATIONAL SECURITY OF PAKISTAN
Over the period, the strategic approach adopted by India towards Pakistan has characteristically recalibrated and modelled around compellence, lawfare and diplomacy. The paper examines New Delhi’s evolving posture under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who emphasises a more audacious framework and has shifted how it manages regional security and bilateral tensions with Pakistan. Hence, it examines how it has affected Pakistan's internationality. This study draws on regional security literature, i.e., Hybrid warfare, Compellence, Diplomacy, and Law fare, to critically assess the underlying logic of India/Modi’s posture and its implications for crisis stability in the South Asian region. Moreover, this paper contextualises sequences of state actions over time, including across the Line of Control (LoC), legislative changes in Illegally Occupied Jammu & Kashmir (IIOJ&K), and coercive diplomatic engagements in multilateral forums, as part of a strategic signalling approach. Within this compellence, diplomacy, and lawfare lens, state actions empirically validate and support the literature on “hybrid warfare architecture” as an all-encompassing theoretical framework for 21st-century conflict characterised by multi-model strategic competition. Thus, the study explores whether these developments represent an enduring, strategically planned, tactically calculated and deliberately initiated transformation or merely a context-based response to security and internationality-related challenges for Pakistan. Lastly, the current integrative approach enhances conceptual clarity and promotes cross-domain analysis. The governance perspective examines the broader implications for Pakistan’s diplomatic manoeuvrability, deterrence, development and the future trajectory of Pakistan/Modi-India relations in a nuclearised environment. Bibliography Entry Mirza, Sulman Naeem. 2025. "Modi Government’s Hybrid Strategic Posture: Implications for National Security of Pakistan." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 146-171.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sulman Naeem Mirza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF GAZA’S CHILDREN: THEIR VOICES AND THEIR PORTRAYAL
This study investigates how the voices of children in Gaza are represented, marginalised, and reshaped across digital and mainstream media discourses. While global media often highlight the humanitarian crisis at a surface level, the lived experiences and self-articulated narratives of Gaza’s children remain largely absent or filtered through political and institutional agendas. Using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), this research examines a corpus of verified social media testimonies alongside selected mainstream news reports to identify patterns in linguistic framing, emotional representation, and narrative positioning. Findings reveal three consistent tendencies: first, children’s self-expressed accounts emphasise agency, grief, and the desire for normalcy, whereas mainstream representations predominantly portray them as passive victims. Second, the mediation and translation of children’s testimonies frequently dilute emotional intensity and political clarity, contributing to subtle ideological distortions. Third, the visual and verbal framing employed by international outlets reinforces a humanitarian-but-depoliticised narrative that obscures the structural and historical dimensions of their suffering. By contrasting firsthand voices with institutional portrayals, the study demonstrates how discourse shapes global perceptions of Gaza’s children and contributes to the broader politics of visibility, empathy, and erasure. The findings underscore the urgent need for media frameworks that preserve narrative integrity and foreground children not as symbols, but as speaking subjects with agency. Bibliography Entry Kanwal, Saman. 2025. "Discourse Analysis of Gaza’s Children: Their Voices and their Portrayal." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 131-145.
Copyright (c) 2026 Saman Kanwal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
FROM TREATY TO WEAPON: HYBRID COERCION AND THE SUSPENSION OF THE INDUS WATERS TREATY IN 2025
The suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) by India in April 2025 marked a consequential shift in South Asian water diplomacy. It transformed a longstanding cooperative framework into a tool of hybrid coercion. This research endeavours to reframe the IWT as a strategic arena where legal thresholds, climate vulnerabilities, and hydro-technical design intersect to create leverage over downstream populations. It will analyse official statements, treaty texts, litigation records, and hydrological data to examine how India's unilateral suspension manipulated treaty mechanics, signalled political intent, and withheld critical flow data without formally abrogating the agreement. Along these lines, the research will examine the faultlines in the treaty's legal and technical architecture, the amplifying role of climate-induced water stress, and the suspension's place within broader hybrid conflict dynamics. Furthermore, the subsequent ruling by the Permanent Court of Arbitration highlights the contested nature of the treaty along with the challenges of enforcing legal norms in the face of strategic manipulation. This research concludes that even though the IWT remains formally intact, it now requires urgent legal, technical, and cooperative innovation to prevent escalation, as it operates under conditions of strategic fragility. Bibliography Entry Niazi, Zubeda Anjum and Houria Sheikh. 2025. "From Treaty to Weapon: Hybrid Coercion and the Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty in 2025." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 109-130.
Copyright (c) 2026 Zubeda Anjum Niazi ; Houria Sheikh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
CHINA’S SLOW CONSUMPTION AND THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE BARRIERS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EXPORT-LED MODEL OF ECONOMIC GROWTH
China’s export-led framework is experiencing internal and external challenges. Domestically, consumption has soared since early 2023, while the escalating trade barriers from the West have intensified challenges to export- and production-driven growth. Overreliance on exports and investment highlights the need for sustainable consumption at home and a stable trade regime abroad; however, in recent years, China has countered difficulties in both realms. While the binary of internal and external challenges is affecting the growth strategy, it can be an opportunity to catalyse the change China’s economy needs for sustainable growth. It is to be evaluated whether the intersection of an internal consumption slump and an external trade barrier can induce a change towards a more sustainable model for China’s economy. Therefore, this paper will discuss these two factors and analyse their potential implications for China’s export-led economic growth model. Bibliography Entry Malik, Ayesha A. and Jugnoo Aijaz. 2025. "China’s Slow Consumption and the International Trade Barriers: Implications for the Export-Led Model of Economic Growth." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 93-108.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ayesha A. Malik; Jugnoo Aijaz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
REFRAMING CONTEMPORARY SECURITY: THE CONFLICT SEVERITY MAPPING FRAMEWORK (CSMF) AND THE DYNAMICS OF GLOBAL CONFLICT
Contemporary conflicts are hybrid and transnational, shaped by overlapping drivers of insecurity, unlike the conflict landscape of previous centuries, which was characterised by singular causes and isolated theatres. The existing approaches tend to categorise conflicts either as purely qualitative themes or through a quantitative lens, leaving a gap in the comprehensive understanding of the severity and nuances of contemporary conflict. This paper introduces the Conflict Severity Mapping Framework (CSMF), which combines a thematic lens (identity, fragile governance, resource competition, geopolitical rivalry, and hybrid risks) with a spatial lens (conflict clusters, strategic corridors, transnational flows, and emerging frontiers), derived from contemporary conflict arenas. By integrating these dimensions, the CSMF categorises conflicts into low, medium, and high severity levels, each corresponding to tailored responses ranging from preventive diplomacy to robust post-conflict recovery. Through illustrative cases and an inductive, case-based comparative method across six regions, the paper demonstrates how the framework moves beyond descriptive mapping to offer a prescriptive model that links theory to practice. In doing so, it provides policymakers with a systematic tool for navigating the complexity of contemporary security. Bibliography Entry Malik, Hiba. 2025. "Reframing Contemporary Security: The Conflict Severity Mapping Framework (CSMF) and the Dynamics of Global Conflict." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 68-92.
Conflict Severity Mapping Framework (CSMF)
Copyright (c) 2026 Hiba Malik https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
GREAT POWER RIVALRY IN A CHANGING INTERNATIONAL ORDER
The article aimed to comprehensively analyse the great powers' rivalries in the current international political and geopolitical landscape, which may be leading to a changing global order. Great Power in the Changing International Order refers to the intensifying competition and conflict among the major powers, especially the US, China, and Russia. It covers various issues such as trade, technology, security, human rights and global governance. The emergence of this rivalry has challenged the existing international order, shaped mainly by the US and its allies after the Cold War. It has created new opportunities and risks for the middle and smaller powers caught between the great-power axis. The latter half of the 20th century saw a shift toward a multipolar world due to globalisation, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and technological advances. However, the 19th and 20th centuries were marked by the dynamic nature of multipolarity, with periods of stability and instability. The receding US influence, the rise of other power centres, and the transition from geopolitics to geoeconomics are among the main factors driving the transition in the world order. Bibliography Entry Permpul, Thanai, Abdeel Kadir Bello, Ahmad Abdalaziz Alnusfir and Meshal Abdullah Salman Almaliki. 2025. "Great Power Rivalry in a Changing International Order." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 54-67.
Copyright (c) 2026 Thanai Permpul; Abdeel Kadir Bello, Ahmad Abdalaziz Alnusfir , Meshal Abdullah Salman Almaliki https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AS NEW CAPITAL: GEOECONOMIC COMPETITION AND RESHAPING OF GLOBAL ORDER
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming core sectors of the global economy, encompassing semiconductors, cloud infrastructure, and digital finance. However, instead of deepening international cooperation, AI has accelerated strategic competition between the two top economies and tech leaders, the United States and China. Drawing on neorealist theory, this study examines how AI, as a capability multiplier and a form of relative power, is utilised by states to enhance their tech advantages in economic and security arenas, thereby creating a techno-geoeconomic security dilemma that enables the US and China to leverage each other. It explores AI’s relative capability concerns, prompting balancing measures, such as trade restrictions, technology blocks, and domestic technological initiatives. The tech oligarchs in Silicon Valley’s American Silicon Valley monopolise AI, data, and related technologies in pursuit of global hegemony. China, amid US export control bans, is developing its indigenous technologies (Chips, LLM models, supercomputing, etc.) through self-help efforts to ensure technological sovereignty. This study employs process tracing for policy analysis, explaining strategic preferences and sector-specific dimensions of competition, providing concrete empirical evidence across defence and geoeconomic domains. Findings reveal that the US uses semiconductor and AI chip export controls, financial chokepoints (such as the SWIFT payment system), and tech alliances to maintain its global pre-eminence. In contrast, China, as part of its balancing act, responds by creating e-CNY and CIPS as means for BRI partners. It concludes that such competition is driven less by economic prosperity or absolute gains than by relative gains and tech sovereignty to secure structural advantage in an anarchic international system. Bibliography Entry Bashir, Sonia and Zahid Mahmood Zahid. 2025. "Artificial Intelligence as New Capital: Geoeconomic Competition and Reshaping of Global Order." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 33-53.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sonia Bashir ; Zahid Mahmood Zahid https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
SINO-INDIAN MILITARY AND BORDER DISPUTES INCLUDING THE 1962 WAR: IMPLICATIONS AND LESSONS FOR PAKISTAN
The study aims to explore China-India disputes, their implications and lessons for Pakistan. Since 1960, China and India have border disputes that have led to several clashes. The genesis of border tensions can be attributed to India’s aggressive posture through the Forward Policy. China does not accept the McMahon Line and claims Arunachal Pradesh. India does not accept the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in the Western Sector and claims the complete Aksai Chin as part of India. Unfavourable settlement of the dispute in the Eastern Sector has grave strategic implications. Aksai Chin in the West is at the crossroads of politically sensitive regions and holds military significance as a launch pad. Despite years of conflict and unsettled border issues, both countries have remained engaged in economic activities, with China being India’s top trading partner since 2008. Border disputes based on competing claims, India’s approach towards neighbours, and the nature of relations are likely to be competitive. Both countries have signed multiple agreements to manage their border disputes; however, implementation remains limited due to mistrust. Bibliography Entry Baig, Sheraz, Syed Umad Ul Hassan and Habib Ullah Khan Afridi. 2025. "Sino-Indian Military and Border Disputes including the 1962 War: Implications and Lessons for Pakistan." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 17-32.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sheraz Baig; Syed Umad Ul Hassan , Habib Ullah Khan Afridi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
INDO-US STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT IN THE INDO-PACIFIC: CHALLENGES AND CHOICES FOR PAKISTAN
This article examines the implications of the Indo-US strategic partnership for Pakistan's security and foreign policy choices. Because of their shared security interests, the United States and India have aligned to contain China's rise in the Indo-Pacific Region (IPR). This partnership raises India’s power, status, and overall influence in the region compared to Pakistan. Considering the long rivalry between India and Pakistan—rooted in ideological, historical, and territorial disputes—this partnership raises the prospects of conflict in South Asia. Additionally, Pakistan-China-India and Pakistan-China-US triangulated relationships add layers of complexity, further diminishing the prospects for cooperation and peace, as a bilateral conflict between any two countries tends to involve the third. The complexities of the first triangle create a security dilemma, mutual distrust, and rivalry among the three regional powers, which, in turn, complicate the relationships within the second triangle. It is argued that the Indo-US partnership complicates Pakistan's security dilemma, heightens the arms race, raises the prospects of conflicts, and encourages Pakistan to align with China closely. Bibliography Entry Khan, Aamir Hussain and Muhammad Arif Khan 2025. "Indo-US Strategic Alignment in the Indo-Pacific: Challenges and Choices for Pakistan." Margalla Papers 29 (2): 1-16.
Copyright (c) 2026 Aamir Hussain Khan; Muhammad Arif Khan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
PAKISTAN’S WATER CRISIS AND ITS NATIONAL SECURITY IMPLICATIONS
This research examines Pakistan's water crisis and its impact on national security, highlighting key factors such as population growth, climate change, and inadequate water resource management. The article emphasises the urgent need for thorough qualitative changes and improved infrastructure to guarantee sustainable access to clean water. This research employs a qualitative approach to examine the complex relationship between regional relations and water security, with a focus on Pakistan’s transboundary water challenges. Through securitisation theory, the study aims to analyse how water scarcity is framed as a water security issue, exploring the securitisation process and its implications for national security. Utilizing an explanatory research design and document analysis, this study comprehensively assesses both internal and external water security threats to Pakistan’s national security. Additionally, it highlights the importance of regional cooperation and diplomacy in managing shared water resources. Addressing the water crisis is an environmental concern and a vital national security imperative. A comprehensive strategy encompassing legislative changes, technical advancements, and international collaboration is required to mitigate the threat and protect Pakistan's stability. Bibliography Entry Amjad, Sawaira. 2025. "Pakistan’s Water Crisis and Its National Security Implications." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 135-151.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sawaira Amjad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
EMERGING SECURITY ARCHITECTURE IN ASIA PACIFIC: IMPACT ON PAKISTAN
The evolving security paradigm in the Asia-Pacific is closely tied to the intensification of great power rivalry. Many nations are pursuing hedging strategies to protect their interests and guard against the fallout of the competition between major powers. A new equation has emerged with China’s ascent on the world stage, positioning Asia to become the hub of geopolitics. The United States (US) views China’s rise and Russia’s resurgence as challenges to its dominance in a unipolar world. Washington is establishing a security arc, evident in initiatives such as AUKUS, QUAD, Squad, and others, across the Asia-Pacific and beyond, in partnership with its Asian and Oceanian/Pacific allies to counter Beijing’s rise. The US Strategic Defence documents (National Security Strategy 2017, National Defense Strategy 2018, and Indo-Pacific Strategy 2022) have already emphasised the containment of China through the militarisation of Asia-Pacific. It also alluded to the transferring of critical technologies and growth in foreign alliances and regional partnerships. Washington’s repositioning in the region and its support for India as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean and beyond, through defence cooperation, have heightened concerns for Pakistan, which is already situated in a challenging geostrategic neighbourhood and has contentious relations with its eastern neighbour, India. Moreover, the US has accorded India a prominent position at the regional and global level to enforce its great power ambitions in the future. This will have far-reaching implications for Pakistan. The paper employs a qualitative research method based on a secondary assessment of academic sources. Bibliography Entry Khan, Muhammad Nawaz. 2025. "Emerging Security Architecture in Asia Pacific: Impact on Pakistan." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 113-134.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Nawaz Khan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
DEVELOPMENT OF JOINT CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, RADIOLOGICAL AND NUCLEAR (CBRN) RESPONSE CAPABILITY IN SOUTH ASIA: CURRENT STATUS & FUTURE PROSPECTS
Protection against the consequences and impacts of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) events remains a top concern in the national and international security framework of nation-states around the globe. The growing threats in the CBRN domain warrant attention to enhance capabilities for an effective CBRN response. The South Asian region requires even more comprehensive and integrated efforts to establish a mechanism for addressing these threats, given the region's complex geostrategic and security dynamics. The area lacks a well-developed coordination mechanism for sharing information and addressing cross-border contamination scenarios in the event of a CBRN incident. This paper aims to explore potential areas of cooperation, integration, and coordinated action among South Asian states at the regional level. A doable framework is proposed to develop joint regional capabilities for prevention, improved preparedness, and incident response strategies. It will focus on integrating the communication mechanism between the regulatory institutions of the participating states. It is emphasized that cooperation among states is crucial for practical accident assessments and the coherence of responses, which are essential for preventing CBRN events. It will help ensure the unified implementation of protective action plans, independent of national border lines, to effectively respond to CBRN incidents that could have critical regional and international implications. Bibliography Entry Choudary, Saman and Muhammad Usman Asghar. 2025. "Development of Joint Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Response Capability in South Asia: Current Status & Future Prospects." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 96-112.
Copyright (c) 2025 Saman Choudary; Muhammad Usman Asghar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
ROBOTIC REPLICATION OF LIVING THINGS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR WARFARE
The paper discusses nature-inspired robotic replications, their potential military applications, implications for warfare, and the perspective of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). Historically, animals have been used in war, helping to turn the tide of battles and the fortunes of many combat soldiers. However, in modern times, there is a growing interest in replicating characteristics of natural creatures in AI-enabled robotics for military purposes. Key mechanics of natural systems, such as manoeuvrability, agility, and aerodynamics, as well as intelligence factors like coordination, swarming, task sharing, and cooperation, have inspired the development of military robots. These robots, equipped with the instinct of survivability alongside features such as self-organization, self-adaptability, and self-learning, are well-suited to navigate the battlefield's challenges and engage in warfare despite the inherent unpredictability and chaos involved. By leveraging the evolutionary advantages of nature, military robots can enhance their effectiveness through biomimicry, as they tend to be more adaptable to unforeseen scenarios. This increased adaptability improves their ability to learn and evolve in response to environmental changes, thereby significantly enhancing mission outcomes. The findings of this research show that, in addition to presenting significant moral, ethical, and legal challenges, rapid advancements lead to the militarization of nature and significantly alter the nature of warfare. The study also provides recommendations for an international consensus on legally binding instruments. Bibliography Entry Ullah, Atta and Sher Ali Kakar. 2025. "Robotic Replication of Living Things and Implications for Warfare." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 80-95.
Copyright (c) 2025 Atta Ullah; Sher Ali Kakar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNTER-VIOLENT EXTREMISM STRATEGIES IN SOUTH ASIA AND AFRICA: LESSONS AND PATHWAYS FOR SUSTAINABLE SECURITY
This article examines the threat of violent extremism and terrorism in South Asia and Africa, comparing counter-violent extremism (CVE) strategies to identify effective measures for sustainable security. It explores the sociopolitical, economic, and cultural factors driving radicalisation and terrorist activities in both regions. South Asian countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India face extremism fuelled by historical grievances, political instability, and religious ideologies. In Africa, nations such as Nigeria, Somalia, and Kenya contend with groups like Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab, exacerbated by poverty, governance issues, and ethnic conflicts. The study aims to highlight successful interventions and the limitations of existing approaches, emphasizing the role of international organizations and regional bodies in shaping CVE efforts. By fostering collaboration between South Asia and Africa, the research seeks to develop comprehensive strategies to address the root causes of violent extremism and promote long-term peace and stability. Bibliography Entry Minko, Abraham Ename. 2025. "Comparative Analysis of Counter-Violent Extremism Strategies in South Asia and Africa: Lessons and Pathways for Sustainable Security." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 55-79.
Copyright (c) 2025 Abraham Ename Minko https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
PRINCIPLES, NORMS AND STRATEGIES OF THE US GLOBAL CYBERSPACE GOVERNANCE
This study examines the United States' (US) approach to global cyber governance, including the principles, strategies, and norms the US intends to promote in cyberspace. This also discusses why the US is unwilling to share cyberspace governance with other great powers. While utilizing the official policies and strategies of the US as primary sources, this study identifies that the core principles of US cyber governance encompass a free and open internet, a multi-stakeholder approach, collaboration with allies, and maintaining a stable and secure digital landscape. However, it is criticised for its approach to data privacy, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) control, mass surveillance programs against foes and allies, and its disagreement with other states on cyberspace governance. Bibliography Entry Ashraf, Nageen and Muhammad Nadeem Mirza. 2025. "Principles, Norms and Strategies of the US Global Cyberspace Governance." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 41-54.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nageen Ashraf; Muhammad Nadeem Mirza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
INDIA’S ACQUISITION OF STRATEGIC NON-NUCLEAR WEAPONS IN THE THIRD NUCLEAR AGE: IMPLICATIONS AND WAY FORWARD FOR PAKISTAN
The advent of the Third Nuclear Age has transformed the global security environment, as this era is marked by the integration of emerging and disruptive technologies into the military and nuclear policies of major and regional powers. It weakens the traditional deterrence postures and adds to the complex global security environment. The challenges of these technologies are staggering in South Asia, where two nuclear-armed neighbours, India and Pakistan, are engaged in an enduring rivalry. Moreover, India’s acquisition of strategic non-nuclear weapons (SNNWs) such as offensive cyber capabilities, anti-satellite capabilities (ASAT), and hypersonic missiles has blurred the lines between conventional and nuclear strikes. Since India has been heavily developing and deploying SNNWs, their implications for Pakistan’s security and regional strategic stability are profound, as they shorten response time and raise the probability of miscalculations. In this context, the recent escalation-cum-retaliation mini-war has been briefly assessed in this study through the lens of SNNWs. Lastly, this paper attempts to analyse the types of SNNWs, India’s advancements in this domain, and their impact on the existing deterrence framework in South Asia. This paper hypothesises that India’s acquisition of SNNWs can have profound implications for Pakistan’s security and would undermine strategic stability in South Asia. It also provides valuable policy inputs to Pakistani policymakers and stakeholders to sustain a credible deterrence posture amid India’s technological developments. Bibliography Entry Khan, A. Anum, Maryyum Masood and Amna Saqib. 2025. "India’s Acquisition of Strategic Non-nuclear Weapons in the Third Nuclear Age: Implications and Way Forward for Pakistan." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 18-40.
Cyberspace, Anti-Satellite Capabilities (ASAT)
Copyright (c) 2025 Anum A. Khan; Marryum Masood, Amna Saqib https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
PAKISTAN’S NATIONAL SECURITY CHALLENGES AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IMPLICATIONS FOR DEFENCE SYSTEM
This paper explores the emerging challenges confronting conventional security paradigms, with a primary focus on the threats posed to the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) through an analytical framework and advancements in military technology. The manuscript examines the intricate relationship between remunerative financial stability and the state’s internal defence. The declining financial conditions pose a significant threat to various facets of societal functioning, and the reliance of national security on a robust economy is observable in the current geopolitical landscape. National security is a fundamental prerequisite for preserving state sovereignty, facilitated by strategically utilising economic resources, diplomatic engagement, military power projection, and political influence. The notion of national security is inherently dynamic, continually evolving in response to a shifting global environment. The fundamental state absorption is impossible to safeguard solely by the defence system's might, particularly when economic development is overlooked. This paper scrutinises Pakistan's deterrence strategy alongside the most significant conventional security threat posed by India, utilising a framework focused on the evolution of armament systems regarding catastrophic capabilities and enhancements in range, unmanned aerial vehicles, satellite surveillance, and other pertinent technologies. This paper examines the relationship between military fiscal allocations and economic development, considering both the presence and absence of armed conflicts (internal and external), with a focus on Pakistan and India. Ultimately, the paper examines potential strategies to address emerging security threats. Bibliography Entry Ashraf, Sadia. 2025. "Pakistan’s National Security Challenges and Economic Growth Implications for Defence System." Margalla Papers 29 (1): 1-17.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sadia Ashraf https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
RECALIBRATING US POLICY IN SOUTH ASIA POST-AFGHANISTAN: STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS FOR PAKISTAN
The United States of America has held a significant position in global politics as a superpower from the end of the Cold War to the present day. The geopolitics of South Asia has been of strategic importance to world powers due to their short and long-term security and economic interests. The United States (US) approach toward the region has been a cause of concern for states, particularly India and Pakistan. As US interests change, it alters its regional alliance strategies, impacting the bilateral relations of regional states. Despite being an important non-NATO ally of the US, Pakistan could not secure its vital interests during the Cold War and after 9/11, leading to a relationship marked by suspicion and mistrust. On the other hand, India, though not a Cold War ally and not a frontline state in the US campaign against terrorism, has enjoyed a special status with the US. The evolving dynamics of South Asia and China’s increasing role in the region have brought India and the US into closer cooperation, resulting in deep and widespread strategic engagement. This paper focuses on the implications of the US changing role in the region, the complexities following its withdrawal from Afghanistan, and its continued close ties with India. It also suggests that Pakistan should analyse its new security, political, and economic challenges and develop a comprehensive policy to address them appropriately. Bibliography Entry Gul, Shereen. 2024. "Recalibrating US Policy in South Asia Post-Afghanistan: Strategic Implications for Pakistan." Margalla Papers 28 (2): 119-131.
Copyright (c) 2024 Shereen Gul https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
ASSESSING MILITARY NECESSITY OF AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS (AWS) IN ARMED CONFLICTS: A CASE STUDY OF IRAN-ISRAEL
Rapid technological advancement has revolutionised the concept of modern warfare. The deployment of AWS has become a new high for military forces around the globe to get a comparative advantage over an adversary in any combat mission. This research aims to explain the military necessity of the Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS) in an armed conflict. This study adopted the qualitative explanatory approach, whereas the data was collected from structured interviews, official reports, and journals. On the other hand, the case study Iran-Israel Missile Exchange has been considered to support the thematic analysis. Moreover, the study utilised the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) theory, which explains the dual impacts of using AWS in combat missions. However, the study’s findings reveal that the deployment of the AWS ensures military necessity for the forces in an armed conflict based on the tactical and strategic advantages. The deployment of the AWS enhances the overall operational effectiveness and gives forces leverage over their foes. Bibliography Entry Shahid, Dua and Ansar Jamil. 2024. "Assessing Military Necessity of Autonomous Weapons Systems (AWS) in Armed Conflicts: A Case Study of Iran-Israel." Margalla Papers 28 (2): 95-118.
Copyright (c) 2024 Dua Shahid; Ansar Jamil https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
GAZA UNDER SIEGE: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER DURING ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT, SUGGESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS
The war in Gaza imposed by Zionist Israel has caused a substantial human loss. At the same time, this war had a disastrous environmental effect. Massive environmental destruction is reported. Vast fields, orchards, and green areas have been destroyed due to the Israeli invasion. The water management system has been devastated, forcing residents of Gaza to use contaminated water. Emissions from military hardware have added to environmental vows. Though human loss and suffering cannot be compensated, and after sympathising with Gaza civilians as a sacred duty, the next important obligation is to stop environmental destruction in the strip and to think about how to restore it. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other organisations are working, but there is room for further improvement. This paper aims to find short and long-term solutions to the restoration of Gaza’s environmental infrastructure, including water management, fields, orchards, and eco-friendly reconstruction of buildings. In addition, the article explores Pakistan’s role in this conflict as well as Israel’s Eco crimes and probes whether Israel is guilty of Ecocide (Environmental genocide). Bibliography Entry Khan, Waqas Ahmed and Kamil Shehzad Bakhsh. 2024. "Gaza under Siege: Environmental Disaster during Israel-Palestine Conflict, Suggestions and Solutions." Margalla Papers 28 (2): 78-94.
Copyright (c) 2024 Waqas Ahmed Khan; Kamil Shehzad Bakhsh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
DECODING BOTS OF TERRORISM IN BALOCHISTAN
Since the withdrawal of the US / North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces from Afghanistan in August 2021, Balochistan has experienced a renewed wave of terrorism with improved organisational/operational capabilities and better-equipped Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) and Balochistan Liberation Front (BLF). The information environment of Balochistan has also undergone a rapid change in the last three years, with the Baloch population, especially the Baloch youth, becoming more accessible to the Baloch Nationalist Militant Organizations through a very efficient militant narrative creation dissemination system. This system of narrative creation based on the manipulation of facts and fabricated stories matched by a dynamic propaganda dissemination system is quickly replacing the facts with an alternative reality. It has also successfully replaced the national mainstream media and is becoming an alternative media choice for the Baloch population. The Baloch Nationalist Militant Organisations’ narrative has quickly gained popularity among domestic audiences and accrues credence from international media. An effective response mechanism is crucial to counter the far-reaching implications through a comprehensive and all-encompassing national effort. Bibliography Entry Iqbal, Jehanzeb. 2024. "Decoding Bots of Terrorism in Balochistan." Margalla Papers 28 (2): 63-77.
Copyright (c) 2024 Jehanzeb Iqbal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0